Konsep Menuntut Ilmu (Bahagian Satu)

 Pendahuluan

 Menurut ajaran Islam, menuntut ilmu adalah satu dari ibadah yang terpuji yang membawa seseorang ke Syurga. Bagaimanapun, matlamat di sebalik menuntut ilmu itu lebih penting dari ilmu itu sendiri. Ketulusan menuntut ilmu dengan matlamat ketuhanan, untuk keredhaan Allah dan berbakti kepada makhlukNya.

 Maka dari itu, pemahaman bagi konsep menuntut ilmu merupakan perkara yang penting kerana ia merupakan aset yang sangat berguna dalam kehidupan. Kemuliaan seseorang terletak pada ketinggian ilmunya. Malah Allah s.w.t. mengangkat darjat bagi siapa yang menuntut ilmu sebagaimana firmanNya:

Terjemahannya:

“Allah mengangkat beberapa darjat orang-orang yang beriman dan orang- orang yang diberi ilmu pengetahuan”

                                                          Al-Mujaadilah (58): 11

Oleh yang demikian, di dalam bab dua ini, penulis akan menghuraikan definisi konsep menuntut ilmu serta cabangnya agar dapat memahami konsep ini dengan lebih jelas. Penulis juga akan menerangkan dengan lebih lanjut dan mendalam lagi tentang kedudukan dan fungsi memahami konsep menuntut ilmu.

2.2 Definisi Ilmu Pengetahuan

Ilmu secara bahasa adalah lawan dari perkataan bodoh. Seseorang yang berilmu dikatakan ‘aalim atau ‘aliim; suatu kaum disebut ulama’.[1] Ia berasal dari Bahasa Arab yang bererti mengetahui atau perbuatan yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui sesuatu perkara dengan sebenar. Dalam Bahasa Inggeris ilmu selalunya disebut sebagai ‘Sciences’.[2] Ilmu dan pengetahuan (knowledge) sebenarnya mempunyai makna yang sama walaupun dari segi penggunaannya kadang-kadang berbeza.

Ilmu juga merujuk kepada kefahaman manusia terhadap sesuatu perkara, yang mana ia merupakan kefahaman yang sistematik dan diusahakan secara sedar. Pada umumnya, ilmu mempunyai potensi untuk dimanfaatkan demi kebaikan manusia. Biasanya, ilmu adalah hasil daripada kajian terhadap sesuatu perkara. Dalam hal ini, ilmu sendiri juga boleh menjadi sasaran kajian dan menghasilkan apa yang dikenali sebagai "ilmu mengenai ilmu", yakni epistemologi.[3]

Ilmu dari segi Istilah: Segala pengetahuan atau kebenaran tentang sesuatu yang datang dari Allah s.w.t yang diturunkan kepada Rasul-rasulNya dan alam ciptaanNya termasuk manusia yang memiliki aspek lahiriah dan batiniah.

Dalam zaman moden ini, pengertian ilmu telah disempitkan dan dimodenkan kepada pengetahuan maklumat dan kemahiran sahaja. Dalam pengertian barat moden, ilmu hanyalah merujuk kepada pengenalan atau persepsi yang jelas tentang fakta. Fakta pula merujuk pada objek penelaahan ilmu mencakupi seluruh aspek kehidupan yang dapat diuji oleh pancaindera manusia dan bersifat empiris.[4] Kewujudan perkara lain di luar keupayaan pancaindera tersebut dianggap bukan fakta dan tidak termasuk dalam bidang ilmu. Mengikut pandangan mereka secara automatik ajaran agama terkeluar daripada ruang lingkup ilmu dan dianggap sebagai kepercayaan semata-mata.

Adapun Islam telah menghimpun antara agama dan ilmu. Tidak ada sebarang penentangan antara agama dan ilmu kerana dalam Islam, agama itu sendiri adalah ilmu dan ilmu adalah agama. Ilmu menurut perspektif Islam dikenali sebagai sifat, proses dan hasil. Manakala istilah ilmu dalam Islam merangkumi pelbagai perkara iaitu Al-Quran, syariah, sunnah, iman, ilmu kerohanian, hikmah, makrifat, pemikiran, sains dan pendidikan.

2.2.1 Konsep Ilmu

Dalam Ihyâ ‘Ulûm ad-Dĩn, Imam Al Ghazali mengungkapkan tentang konsep ilmu. Menurutnya, ilmu terbahagi kepada dua bahagian, iaitu:

1.                  Ilmu-ilmu yang berkaitan dengan aqidah dan ibadah wajib. Setiap orang wajib mendalami ilmu-ilmu tersebut yakni fardhu ‘ain.

2.               Imu-ilmu yang berkaitan dengan umum, misalnya: ilmu kedoktoran, ilmu sosiologi, ilmu komputer, dan lain-lain. Tidak semua orang wajib mempelajari ilmu-ilmu tersebut dan hanya beberapa orang saja sudah memadai. Ia juga disebut sebagai fardhu Kifayah.

2.2.2 Tujuan Ilmu Pengetahuan

Tujuan ilmu pengetahuan terbahagi kepada dua, iaitu ilmu pengetahuan murni (pure Science) dan ilmu pengetahuan terapan (applied science). Tujuan ilmu pengetahuan terapan adalah pengawalan, perencanaan dan perkembangan teknologi untuk meningkatkan kualiti hidup manusia.

Sementara itu, tujuan ilmu pengetahuan murni (pure science), dapat dilihat daripada dua sudut iaitu secara psikologi dan kepuasan. Secara psikologi, tujuan ilmu pengetahuan murni adalah mencari kebenaran dan kepuasaan akal untuk menjangka sesuatu kejadian. Manakala secara kepuasan pula, ia merupakan kepuasaan artistik seperti menyelesaikan sesuatu masalah pelik di dalam sesuatu teori yang sangat besar dan mendalam.[5] 

2.2.3 Keutamaan Ilmu pengetahuan          

Sejarah telah membuktikan bahawa kemajuan sesuatu bangsa adalah berkait-rapat dengan kemajuan dan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan yang terdapat pada sesuatu bangsa. Ini kerana ilmu akan mengangkat darjat seseorang atau sesuatu bangsa itu ke arah kemuliaan dan kebahagiaan hidup di dunia dan di akhirat. Di antara kepentingan-kepentingan ilmu yang dapat dijelaskan di sini adalah:

            2.2.3.1 Ilmu Adalah Warisan Para Nabi

Adapun para Nabi tidak mewariskan dinar mahupun dirham, mereka hanya mewariskan ilmu. Barangsiapa mengambil ilmu tersebut maka sungguh ia telah mengambil bahagian yang banyak dari warisan para Nabi. Hal tersebut termasuk keutamaan yang paling besar.[6]

            2.2.3.2 Ilmu Membentuk Peribadi yang Mulia

Ilmu dapat membentuk keperibadian yang baik dan menjadikan seseorang itu bertaqwa dan cintakan Allah s.w.t dan RasulNya. Firman Allah dalam al-Quran:

                       

            Terjemahannya:

"Sesungguhnya yang takutkan Allah daripada hambanya ialah orang-orang yang berilmu, Sesungguhnya Allah Maha Perkasa lagi Maha Pengampun”.                                  

                                                                     Faathir (35): 28.

            2.2.3.3 Ilmu Sifatnya Kekal

Ilmu tidak seperti harta yang akan musnah. Dalam sebuah hadis s.a.w. bersabda, "Jika seseorang meninggal dunia maka terputuslah amalannya kecuali dari tiga perkara yaitu: sadaqah jariyah, ilmu yang bermanfaat, dan anak salih yang mendo'akannya."[7]

            2.2.3.4 Mengangkat Darjat Seseorang

Ilmu dapat mengangkat seseorang lebih tinggi disisi Allah s.w.t. dan membezakan taraf di kalangan manusia. Firman Allah:

Terjemahannya:

“Katakanlah adakah sama orang-orang berilmu dengan orang yang tidak berilmu? Sesungguhnya mereka yang mendapat peringatan dan petunjuk hanyalah di kalangan hambanya yang berilmu dan bijaksana".                                                                                                                                                                                      Al-Zumar (39): 9

            2.2.3.5 Melaksanakan Ibadah

Dengan ilmu manusia dapat menjalankan tugas ibadah (ibadah umum atau ibadah khusus) dan dapat melaksanakan peranan sebagai khalifah Allah di muka bumi.[8]

2.2.4 Klasifikasi Ilmu

Ilmu telah diklasifikasikan kepada tiga bahagian iaitu berdasarkan topik, hukum dan juga hubungkait ilmu dengan syariat dan bukan syariat.

2.2.4.1 Berdasarkan Topik

Al-Kindi merupakan filsuf Muslim pertama yang menyajikan klasifikasi ilmu berdasarkan topik, yang kemudian diikuti oleh al-Farabi dalam bukunya Ihsa al-Ulum (daftar ilmu-ilmu). Dalam buku Science and Civilization in Islam, Dr Syed Hossein Nasr meringkaskan klasifikasi al-Farabi tersebut sebagai berikut:

1.      Ilmu bahasa

2.      Ilmu logik

3.      Ilmu-ilmu pendahuluan

4.       Ilmu fisik (ilmu alam)

5.      Metafisik (ilmu wujud)

Sesudah al-Farabi, Ibn Sina di dalam bukunya The Book of Healing and Treatise menyajikan suatu klasifikasi ilmu intelektual kemudian Fakhr Al-Din al-Razi  dalam The Book Of Sixty Sciences dan banyak lagi pemikir lainnya mengemukakan klasifikasi-klasifikasi ilmu, tapi mereka boleh diketepikan kerana tidak banyak berbeza dengan al -Farabi. Klasifikasi mengenai ilmu-ilmu yang di pelajari di dunia Islam telah di ringkaskan oleh Dr Syed Hossien Nasr sebagai berikut:

1.      Ilmu-ilmu falsafah dan intelektual.

2.      Ilmu-ilmu yang diturunkan (dapat dipelajari melalui penyampaian, dalam hal ilmu-ilmu agama. Rantai penyampaiannya dimulai dari asal mula wahyu).

Dalam persidangan sedunia II mengenai pendidikan Islam, yang dibiayai oleh King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah dan Quaid I Azam University, Islamabad dan dilangsungkan di Islamabad pada bulan Mac 1980  telah disetujui klasifikasi ilmu sebagai berikut:

1.      Pengetahuan tentang yang kekal abadi; Al-Quran, Sunnah Nabi, riwayat hidup Nabi dan sebagainya.

2.      Pengetahuan perolehan;

a)      Seni imaginasi

b)      Ilmu-ilmu intelektual; ilmu-ilmu sosial, filsafat dan lainnya.

c)      Ilmu-ilmu fisik

d)     Ilmu-ilmu terapan

e)      Ilmu-ilmu praktikal[9]

2.2.4.2 Berdasarkan Hukum

Bagi para ulama dahulu, ilmu pengetahuan dan agama bukanlah dua hal yang berbeza. Oleh kerana itu, usaha al-Imam Ghazali dalam mengklasifikasi ilmu perlu diperhatikan secara lebih terperinci. Dalam kitab Ihyâ ‘Ulûm ad-Dĩn, beliau mengklafikasikan ilmu menjadi dua bahagian: Fardhu ‘Ain dan dan Fardhu Kifayah.[10]

i)        Ilmu Fardhu ‘Ain: iaitu kewajipan yang dituntut ke atas setiap umat Islam yang baligh dan berakal supaya mengetahui dan mempelajarinya bagi memenuhi tuntutan agama. Contoh: Ilmu-ilmu yang berkaitan dengan ibadah wajib atau kepercayaan (Aqidah). Ilmu Fardhu Ain ialah ilmu yang berkaitan dengan perkara yang berupa kepercayaan dan perbuatan yang mesti dilakukan atau ditinggalkan.

ii)      Ilmu Fardhu Kifayah: Kewajipan yang dituntut ke atas seluruh masyarakat Islam. Sekiranya ada seorang yang mengetahui ilmu tersebut maka gugur dosa ke atas umat Islam. Ilmu fardhu kifayah adalah sangat luas ruang lingkupnya. Contohnya: ilmu kedoktoran, pengurusan, teknologi dan sebagainya. Segala ilmu yang diperlukan oleh umat manusia, maka menuntutnya pun wajib ke atas mereka kerana ilmu-ilmu tersebut terlalu banyak dan terlalu luas bidangnya. Kewajipan tersebut diserahkan kepada seluruh umat Islam secara bergotong-royong atau pembahagian tugas di antara mereka.[11]

2.2.4.3 Berdasarkan Hubungkait Dengan Syariat dan Bukan Syariat

Dari segi hubungannya dengan syariat, ia terbahagi kepada empat iaitu; Ilmu Usul iaitu ilmu yang asas tentang al-Quran, sunnah, ijma' atau peninggalan sahabat. Ilmu Furu’ iaitu ilmu yang diluaskan daripada Ilmu usul contohnya; fiqh, faraid dan sebagainya.

 Ilmu muqaddimah atau pengantar iaitu ilmu yang berupa alat untuk memahami al-Quran dan sunnah. Contohnya; belajar mengenal huruf jawi atau tulisan arab. Akhir sekali ilmu penyempurnaan iaitu Ilmu yang bertujuan untuk menyempurnakan lagi ilmu al-Quran dan al-hadith. Contohnya; ilmu tajwid, tafsir dan sebagainya.

Ilmu bukan syariat pula terbahagi kepada dua iaitu ilmu yang terpuji sama seperti ilmu fardhu kifayah. Contohnya; matematik, sains, ekonomi, pertanian dan sebagainya. Seterusnya ilmu yang tercela iaitu ilmu yang boleh mendatangkan kemudharatan dan perpecahan malah mendapat kebencian Allah seperti ilmu sihir, silap mata, ilmu menipu dan sebagainya.[12]

2.2.5 Metode Mendapatkan Ilmu

Dalam tulisan- tulisan Ibn al-Haitham dapat disimpulkan bahawa metode mendapatkan ilmu ialah melalui dua proses, induktif dan deduktif. Metode induktif merangkumi:

a)      Pengamatan.

b)      Generalisasi, rumusan suatu prinsip umum dalam sesuatu bentuk hipotesis.

c)      Pencubaan.

Metode deduktif pula, mencakupi:

a)      Verifikasi berdasarkan percubaan dari konsekuensi-konsekuensi hipotesis.

b)      Penafsiran fakta-fakta lain berdasarkan hipotesis.[13]

Di dalam Islam juga, pencarian pengetahuan oleh seseorang bukanlah sesuatu yang tidak mungkin, tetapi harus, dan dianggap sebagai kewajipan bagi setiap Muslim yang bertanggungjawab. Di antara metode lain untuk mendapatkan ilmu adalah seperti berikut:[14]

1.                     Wahyu

Wahyu adalah pemberitahuan Allah kepada seorang hamba yang dipilih di kalangan hambaNya dengan secara sulit dan rahsia berlainan dari apa yang dialami oleh manusia biasa. Tidak dapat dinafikan lagi wahyu adalah merupakan sumber pengetahuan yang terpenting yang telah disampaikan oleh Allah kepada manusia sama ada ianya disampaikan melalui Nabi Muhammad s.a.w atau melalui nabi-nabi yang terdahulu. Wahyu merupakan teras kepada segala ilmu kerana di dalam al-Quran terkandung pelbagai jenis ilmu pengetahuan yang amat diperlukan oleh manusia untuk kemaslahatan hidup, juga perkara-perkara ghaib yang tidak dijangkau oleh akal manusia.

2.      Pancaindera

Semua pancaindera seperti sentuhan, hiduan, penglihatan, pendengaran dan deria rasa merupakan sumber pengetahuan yang utama dan amat berguna bagi manusia untuk berinteraksi dengan alam sekelilingnya dengan mudah dan betul. Kelima-lima pancaindera merupakan satu cara untuk mendapatkan ilmu pengetahuan melalui beberapa percubaan dan pengalaman yang berulang-ulang. Bagaimanapun kebenaran yang diperolehi tidak semestinya selalu betul dan tepat. Umpamanya matahari kelihatan kecil oleh mata sedangkan kenyataannya adalah sebaliknya.

3.      Akal

Akal adalah merupakan sumber utama pengetahuan manusia. Malah perbezaan antara manusia dan haiwan adalah melalui hasil tamadun yang diusahakan oleh manusia berpunca dari pemikiran akal manusia yang kreatif. Dengan akal manusia dapat menimbang dan membezakan antara yang baik dan buruk walaupun mungkin ianya tidak bersifat kebenaran mutlak, namun memadai untuk mengatasi masalah kehidupan seharian. Bagaimanapun Allah menyuruh manusia menggunakan semaksima mungkin kedua-dua daya akal dan pancaindera yang dianugerahkan kepadanya agar dapat sampai kepada pengetahuan sahih dan kebenaran yang tidak menyesatkan.

            4. Intuisi atau Ilham.

Intuisi atau ilham juga boleh menjadi sumber pengetahuan manusia yang amat berguna. Ianya merupakan pengetahuan yang diperolehi tanpa melalui proses pemikiran yang tertentu. Contohnya seseorang yang mempunyai masalah yang sedang menumpukan pemikirannya terhadap penyelesaian masalah tersebut, tiba-tiba menjadi jalan penyelesaian tanpa perlu berfikir panjang seolah-olah kebenaran yang dicari datang sendiri. Di dalam Islam ilham ini boleh dikenali dengan istilah "firasat" atau pun pandangan bashirah (tembus) yang dikurniakan oleh Allah kepada para ulama.[15]

---

[1] Ibn Manzur, Imam al-A’lamat Abi al-Fadhil Jamalddin Muhammad b. Mukriz Ibn Manzur. 2000. Lisân al- ‘Arab. Jil. 12. Cet. Pertama.Bairut: Darul Sadir. Hlm. 417.

[2] Della Summer. 2008. Longman; Active Study Dictionary Fourthteenth Impression Edition. Edinburgh: Pearson Education Limited. Hlm. 663.

[3] Dari Wikipedia Bahasa Melayu, Ensiklopedia Bebas. http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu. 12 Oktober 2009. 10.40mlm

[4] Jujun S. Suriasumantri. 1997. Ilmu Dalam Perspektif: Sebuah Kumpulan Karangan Tentang Hakekat Ilmu. Cet. Ketigabelas. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia. Hlm.5.

[5] Reza A.A Wattimena. 2005. Filsafat & Sains; Sebuah Pengantar. Jakarta: Penerbit PT Grasindo. Hlm.110-111.

[6] Diriwayatkan Ibn Majah. Kitab Sunan Ibn Majah. Kitab Al-Muqadimmah. Bab Fadhl al- ‘Ulama’ wa Al-Hath ‘ala talab Al-‘Ilmi. Hadis No.219.

[7] Disahihkan oleh Syaikh Al-Albani. Kitab Shahih Al-Targhib wa Tarhib. Kitab Al-‘Ilmu. Bab Al-Targib fi al-‘ilm wa talabih. Hadis No. 78.                                                                                                        

[8] Abdullah al-Atsary. Ash Shahihah.19 Jun 2009. http://shahihah.blogspot.com/2008/06/definisi-ilmu-keutamaan-dan-hukum.html. 14 Oktober 2009. 5:44petang.

[9] Qadir C.A. 2002. Filsafat & Ilmu Pengetahuan dalam Islam. Edisi Kedua. Indonesia: Pustaka Obor Indonesia IKAPI.Hlm.114-117.

[10] Ismail Raji al-Faruqi, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas. 2006. Sungai Tak Bermuara; Risalah Konsep Ilmu dalam Islam: Sebuah Tinjauan Ihsani. Cet. Pertama. Jakarta: Penerbit Diwan. Hlm, 33.

[11] Imam al- Ghazali. 1980. Ihya Ulumiddin. Indonesia : Percetakan Menara Kudus. Hlm.84.

[12] Khazali Idris.Anjung Ilmu. http://khazalii.googlepages.com/udi30521konsepilmu. 11 Oktober.2009. 12:52 tghari.

[13] Qadir C.A. 2002. Filsafat & Ilmu Pengetahuan dalam Islam. Edisi Kedua. Indonesia: Pustaka Obor Indonesia IKAPI. Hlm . 112.

[14] Wan Mohd. Nor Wan Daud. Ibn Ishaq’s Site. “Konsep Pengetahuan Dalam Islam”, http://ishacovic.multiply.com/journal. Oktober 2009. 1:42 Petang.

[15] Ibid.

Nikāḥ Al-Mutʿah (Temporary Marriage) : Analyze the chronology

Nikāḥ Al-Mutʿah (Temporary Marriage)

Temporary Marriage is recognized by the Shiite sect of Islam, as well as the school of Hanbali in certain circumstances. Temporary marriages, or Nikāḥ al-Mutʿah, were allowed in the Jāhilīyah period. Both Shiites and Sunnis agreed upon the permissible of temporary marriage at certain point of time.[1] The Sunnis believe these marriages were initially allowed by the Prophet Mohammad; however, the second Caliph ‘Umar  ibn Khattab outlawed it in the seventh century A.D.[2] The Shiites, however, viewed ‘Umar’s decision as unbinding and particularly the Twelver Shiites. They believe that the authority for a Nikāḥ al-Mutʿah marriage is in the Quran as mentioned in Sūrat An-Nisa’: 

“All married women except those whom your right hands possess (this is) Allah's ordinance to you, and lawful for you are (all women) besides those, provided that you seek (them) with your property, taking (them) in marriage not committing fornication. Then as to those whom you profit by, give them their dowries as appointed; and there is no blame on you about what you mutually agree after what is appointed; surely Allah is Knowing, Wise.”[3]

By its revelation this verse in effect confirmed an existing situation; and it emphasized that men must fulfil their promises concerning the agreed upon sum. In Medina this custom was looked upon as one kind of temporary marriage and was referred to by the term istimta', the same word employed in the Qurʼānic verse even though the literal meaning of the word is 'to seek benefit' or 'to take enjoyment'. The verse explains that a man may “profit by,” or have sexual relations with, a woman as long as he pays a dowry.

Nikāḥ al-Mutʿah has four requirements: (1) a set length of time and (2) a specified dowry (3) The Formula (Sighah) and (4) Spouse (Wife). Guardian and witnesses are not needed to perform this marriage. Nikāḥ al-Mutʿah marriage contract can be anywhere between one hour and ninety-nine years.[4] The contract is void without a dower; however, the marriage may be a permanent one if the length of time is not specified.[5] There can be no divorce in temporary marriages; however, the husband may end the marriage contract by paying the entire dowry. However, after the separation, the women would not inherit anything. Additionally, all children born to a Nikāḥ al-Mutʿah according to Shiites are legitimate.[6]

Men may temporarily marry as many women along while being married to as many as four permanent wives. Women, however, may only have one temporary marriage at a time and must wait for two menstrual cycles before her next temporary marriage, in order to identify the father should she get pregnant.[7]

Comparing the views on Mutʿah (Temporary Marriage) between Shiite and Sunni Authorities

The most important verse of the Qurʼān which establishes the legitimacy of Mutʿah is verse 24, Surat an-Nisa’, known to all ḥadīth commentators of Sunnis and Shi’a as “the verse of Mut’ah.” This verse provides a clear and unshakeable permission for the practice of temporary marriage. The main verse is:

[Forbidden to you] are married woman, except what your right hand possesses. This Allah has written for you, and all other women besides these are permitted to you, so that you may seek them out with your wealth, seeking chastity and not fornication. So when you have contracted temporary marriage [istimt'atum] with them, then give them their words. There is no sin on you for whatever you agree to after this. Indeed, Allah is Knowing, Wise.

The Shiites’ View

Mutʿah considers as one of importance belief in Shi’a sect and has tried to keep it alive as an institution of Islamic society. Shi'a law is often referred to as the 'Ja'fari school of law', and the Shiite calls Abu Ja'far Muhammad al Tusi (death. 460/1068) the 'Elder of the Denomination' (Shaykh at-tāifah), since he is the founder of Shi’a demonstrative jurisprudence (al-fiqh al-istidlālī); in other words, he was the first person to give Shi’a law a systematic basis. Hence, Shiite often referred to his school of law.

In the case of Mutʿah, Imam Ja'far considered Mutʿah a divine mercy by means of which people were saved from the sin of fornication and delivered from God's retribution. He propagated that Allah has given Mercy to all mankind and it is considered arrogant to not make use of this mercy. Concerning the Qur'anic verse in Surat Fāthir; “Whatsoever mercy God opens to men, none can with old.”[8] The Imam Ja'far said: “I do not like a man to leave this world without having married temporarily, even if only on one occasion.”[9] The link between this verse and statement explains the necessity of avail these opportunities as mercy.

Referring to verse mentioned above, the Shiites affirm that the Arabic term 'istamta'tum' is a reference to Mutʿah (temporary marriage) by making use of ḥadīth sources to justify their interpretation. The Qur’an remains the primary source of interpretation and if the term is studied from within the context of the verse and via the overarching narratives of the Quran. Shiites also used traditional Sunni commentaries to affirm their position. For example, used ḥadīth that narrated by Abu Nadhra:

“I read for Ibn Abbās, may Allah be pleased with him, “Then as to those whom you sought enjoyment from, give them their dowries as appointed” and he said to me, “Then as to those whom you seek enjoyment from for a prescribed time.” I said, “We do not read it like that.” Ibn Abbas said, “By Allah, it was revealed like that.”[10]

The above authentic narration demonstrates two important aspects; firstly, to the indication of the great companion Abdullah Ibn ‘Abbas, which the verse 24 in Surat An-nisa’ is indeed referring to temporary marriage. Secondly, one notices that Ibn ‘Abbas added the term “for a prescribed time” (ajilin musama) to the verse. In fact some argue there is no any verse came after the verse of Mut’ah was revealed to abrogate it. As mentioned in Tafsīr al-Kabīr:

“Imran Ibn Husain narrated, “The verse of Mut’ah was revealed in the book of Allah, and there did not come any other verse after that to abrogate it; and the Prophet ordered us to do it, so we did it at the time of Allah's Apostle”[11]

To prove the legitimacy of Mut’ah, Shiites prove in two approaches; firstly by giving the selection of ḥadīths from Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī and aḥīḥ Muslim that stated the permissible of Mut’ah and secondly, affirming by giving their sources of ḥadīths. On this issue; these first three ḥadīths explain that it was indeed the prophet actively permitted, nay encouraged, his followers to perform Mut’ah, and then 'Umar forbade Mut’ah and numbers of companions opposed it. The later part it becomes controversial between Shiites and Sunnis. The ḥadīths are as follows:

“Narrated by 'Abdullah: We used to participate in the holy battles led by Allah's Apostle and we had nothing (no wives) with us. So we said, "Shall we get ourselves castrated?" He forbade us that and then allowed us to marry women with a temporary contract and recited to us: -- 'O you who believe! Make not unlawful the good things which Allah has made lawful for you, but commit no transgression.' (5.87)[12]” - Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī

Salama b. al. Akwa' and Jabir b. Abdullah reported: Allah's Messenger (May peace be upon him) came to us and ordered us to contract temporary marriage.[13] - Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim

“Abd Nadra reported: While I was in the company of Jibir, a person came and said: There is difference of opinion among Ibn ‘Abbas and Ibn Zubair about two Mut'ahs (benefits, Tamattu in Hajj and temporary marriage with women), whereupon Jibir said: We have been doing this during the lifetime of Allah's Messenger (May peace be upon him), and then 'Umar forbade us to do so, and we never resorted to them.[14] - Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim

The above ḥadīth’s translation mentioned the reality of temporary marriage has not only a pretext in the Qur’an and the Prophetic Traditions, but was practiced by respected companions and their disciples. Besides, Ibn ‘Abbas was one of the most prominent companion to consider Mu’tah legitimate, and his disciples Saeed Ibn Jubayr and Tawoos reached similar rulings. The companions who are considered by the Sunnis all to be pious upright individuals, debated over this issue and some of them ruled on Mut’ah’s legitimacy. The list of companions who permitted this is extensive, but Ibn Hazm, lists some of them:

“After the Prophet Mohammed’s death, Mutah was considered to be permissible by Ibn Mas’ood, Muawiya, Abu Sa’eed, Ibn Abbas, Salama, the sons of Ummaya Ibn Khalaf, Jabir, Amr Ibn Huraith…and from the tabi’een (second generation of Muslims) it was considered permissible by Tawoos, Saeed Ibn Jubayr, Ataa’, and all the jurists of Makkah.”[15]

Ibn Batal said: “The People of Mecca and Yemen narrated from Ibn Abbas that Mut’ah is permissible. It is narrated by a weak chain that Ibn ‘Abbas revoked its permissibility. His considered Mut’ah to be permissible is more verifiable, and that is the school of the Shia.”[16]

According to Shiite authority itself, Mut’ah is highly encouraged and whoever performs Mut’ah, Allah S.W.T will elevate his position. Furū’ Al-Kāfī is one of the four Shiite books of ḥadīth; of the four, it is considered the most authoritative and authentic. The Imam says:

“One who engages in Mut’ah once in his lifetime reaches the status of Imam Al-Hussain. One who engages in it twice becomes equal in status to Imam Al-Hasan. The one who performs it three times reaches the position of Imam Ali. And he who practices it four times acquires the level and position of the Prophet Muhammad.”

This is pure blasphemy to say that all a man has to do to get to the level and position of the Prophet is to have Mut’ah with four women. To say that a man who engages in prostitution can in any way, shape, or form be compared to the Prophet is heresy.

 Here is some more Shiites ḥadīths from Al-Kāfī:

1.       Abaan Ibn Tulugh related that he said to Imam Jafar as-Sadiq, “Often during my travels I come across a very beautiful woman and I am not sure if she has a husband or if she is an adulterous or if she is one of dubious character.” The Imam responded, “Why should you worry about all of these things? Your duty is to believe what she says, and if she says that she has no husband then you should engage in Mut’ah with her.”

2.       Zanaarah said, “I asked the Imam: ‘with how many girls can one do Mut’ah with?’ He replied, ‘with as many as you like; they are like hired girls.’”

3.       “If a man contracts Mut’ah once in his lifetime, Allah will grant him paradise.”

4.       “If a man does Mut’ah, he is saved from shirk.” [17]

According to Qur’anic verse and ḥadīth evidences for legitimacy of Mut’ah derived from Shiite sources and Sunnis sources itself, the Shiites concluded that Mutʿah is permissible and in fact, some Sunni’s scholars also agreed upon legitimacy. In the next paragraphs, we will analyze how Sunnis defend their position and claim that the verse of Mut’ah has been abrogated and it considers illegitimate and immoral.

 The Sunni View

As was mentioned above, the Sunnis agreed that at the beginning of Islam Mut'ah was permitted. Those Sunnis who hold that the Qur'anic verse mentioned above 4:23 does indeed refer to the permissibility of Mut'ah also maintain that the verse was subsequently abrogated (naskh) by other Qur'anic verses. However, not all Sunni authorities forbid Mut’ah, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, a 9th century Sunni Islamic scholar, he is considered the founder of the Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence writes: “Ibn Abbas and other party amongst the Sahaba narrated traditions that Mut'ah is halaal, and Ibn Hanbal also said that it was practicable”[18]. Thus, Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence followed the view of Ibn Abbas and other another Sahaba said that Mut'ah can be utilised when needed.

In order to reject the idea of Mut’ah, The Sunni authorities exclude Hanbali school offer three arguments to prove their point: other than Qur'anic verses, the sermon of 'Umar banning Mut'ah, and ḥadīth of the Prophet transmitted by the Companions.

1.      Qurʼānic Argument

Not to deny that there is verse provides a clear and unshakeable permission for the practice of temporary marriage in the verse 24, Surat An-nisa’. However, according to the Prophet's wife 'A'isha and others; Mut'ah is forbidden and abrogated[19] in the Qur'an where Allah says: Prosperous are the believers ... who guard their private parts save from their wives and what their right hands own.[20]

It must be remembered here that a Mut'ah relationship makes a woman neither a wife nor a slave girl of a person, whereas the Qur’an specifically restricts sexual relationships of a person with these two. It should be noticed that the particular word used by the Qur’an in the referred verse translated as "wives" is "azwaj" plural of "zaujah". In the classical Arabic language, a woman with whom a person had entered into a contract of Mut`ah was called the "Mamtu'ah" of the person, she was not referred to as the "zaujah" of the person. The verse therefore is clear evidence to the fact that no other relationship besides the one based on Nikah was allowed by Islam. On the other hands, Women of Mut’ah would not inherit anything, if she were a wife; she and her husband would inherit from each other, since Allah says: And for you a half of what your wives leave.[21]

In this case, the permissibility of Mut'ah is invalid in current time as the verse had been abrogated by other verses of Qur’an and the concept itself contradicts with the concept of Nikah.          

2.      The Sermon of 'Umar Banning Mut'ah

Besides the existence of all these clear texts which prove the legality of the mut`ah marriage, we cannot find a solution for this complex except that caliph `Umar followed his own ijtihad in order to achieve a social benefit which he, according to his own insight, saw the Muslims of his time and days required him to prohibit the Mut`ah a civil prohibition, in order to serve a temporal interest, not a religious prohibition, since caliph `Umar is greater and is Islamically above prohibiting what Allah has permitted or incorporating in the religion what has nothing to do with the religion. It has, therefore, to be a civil prohibition, not a religious one. His strict stand vis-à-vis the mut`ah marriage is not the first of its kind, for he is known to be tough and harsh in all his affairs and applies his personal ijtihad seeking the higher benefit, in his view, for Islam and the upholding of the Shari`ah. ‘

Umar ibn Al-Khattab had mentioned in his sermon on banning Mut’ah and the Shi’ites argue that his prohibition was based on 'independent judgment'[22] (ijtihad) and baseless. However, the sermon is supported by numbers of ḥadīth that mentioned prohibition of Mut’ah had occurred in the time of prophet and basically is not merely independent judgement of ‘Umar. ‘Umar said in his sermon:

“There were two types of Mut`ah during the lifetime of the Messenger of Allah, I ban them and shall punish anyone who breaks this rule, one is Mut`ah with women and the other is Mut`ah of Hajj.”

In order to explain it, Al-Baihaqī portrayed in his book:

“We have no doubt that Mut`ah was (allowed) during the lifetime of the Prophet. However, we found that he (peace be upon him) forbade Mut`ah marriage in the year of the Conquest of Mecca after permitting it. Then we did not find that he (peace be upon him) permitted it after forbidding it until he (peace be upon him) met his Lord. Thus forbidding Mut`ah marriage on the part of `Umar ibn Al-Khattab (may Allah be pleased with him) was in accordance with the Sunnah of Allah's Messenger (peace be upon him). Thus we act according to this.”[23]

Thus, to conclude, `Umar ibn Al-Khattab did not ban Mut’ah based on his will and own judgement but rather he acted in accordance with the Sunnah of Prophet and also.

3.      Hadith Forbidding Mut’ah

In Sunni sources, the ḥadīth forbidding Mut’ah are considered Mutawattir, meaning that they have been transmitted so many times and by so many people that there is no doubt as to their authenticity. The ḥadīths are as follows:

“Sabra al-Juhanni reported on the authority of his father that while he was with Allah's Messenger (May peace be upon him) he said: 0 people, I had permitted you to contract temporary marriage with women, but Allah has forbidden it (now) until the Day of Resurrection. So he who has any (woman with this type of marriage contract) he should let her off, and do not take back anything you have given to then (as dower).”[24]

“'Ali b. AbiTalib reported that Allah's Messenger (May peace be upon him) prohibited on the Day of Khaibar the contracting of temporary marriage with women and the eating of the flesh of domestic asses.”[25]

“'Ali (Allah be pleased with him) heard that Ibn Abbas (Allah be pleased with them) gave some relaxation in connection with the contracting of temporary marriage, whereupon he said: Don't be hasty (in your religious verdict), Ibn 'Abbas, for Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) on the Day of Khaybar prohibited forever the doing of it-And eating of the flesh of domestic asses.”[26]

“Iyas b. Salama reported on the authority of his father that Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) gave sanction for contracting temporary marriage for three nights in the year of Autas 1847 and then forbade it.”[27]

These are some of authentic ḥadīths by Sunnis’ sources to identify the chronology of permissible Mut’ah to the time that prophet forbade it, and to affirm that prophet had mentioned several times.

---

[1] Asghar Ali Engineer, The Right’s of Women in Islam (New York: Sterling Publishers PT. LTD, December 1, 2004), 27.

[2] Shahla Haeri, Power of Ambiguity: Cultural Improvisations on the Theme of Temporary Marriage (Iran: International Society for Iranian Studies, 1986), 123-124.

[3]  Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Qurʼān’s commentary, 4:24

[4] Shahla Haeri, Power of Ambiguity: Cultural Improvisations on the Theme of Temporary Marriage (Iran: International Society for Iranian Studies, 1986), 125.

[5] Jamal J. Nasir, The Status of Women under Islamic Law and Modern Islamic Legislation (Brill, Second Edition, 1994), 18.

[6] Said Amir Arjomand, From nationalism to revolutionary Islam (New York: SUNY Press, 1984), 17.

[7] Haeri, Power of Ambiguity, 125.

[8]    Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Meaning of Qurʼān, 35:2

[9]   Shaikh al-Hur al-Aamili, Wasā'il al-Shīʿa, (Dubai: Al-Dar Al-Amira, 2010) XIV, 444, ḥadīth 13.

[10] Al-Hakim, Mustafa 'Abdal Qadir 'Ata, Al-Mustadrak 'ala al-Sahîhayn (Bayrūt: Dar Al-Kotob Al Ilmiyyah) Vol 2, 276.

[11] Fakhr ad-Din ar-Rāzi, Tafsīr al-Kabīr  (Bayrūt: Dar al- Fikr, 1981), Volume 3, 95.

[12] Muhammad Muhsin Khan, trans., Imam al-Bukhārī, The Translation of the Meanings of Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī: Arabic-English (United States: Dar-us-Salam, First Ed. June 1997), Vol 7, Book 62, Hadith No. 013A.

[13] Nasiruddin al-Khattab, Trans., Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim (United States: Dar-us-Salam, 2007) ,Vol 2, Book 8, No. 3247

[14] Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Volume 2, Book 7, No. 2874

[15] Ibn Hazm, Muntaqa, Volume 2, Page 520

[16] Fathul Bari, Ibn Hajar, Volume 9 Page 73

[17] Muhammad ibn Ya‘qūb al-Kulaynī, Furū’ al-Kāfī (Bayrūt: Mu’assasat al-A‘lamī lil-Maṭbū‘āt, 2005), Vol 2, 196.

[18] Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah Volume 4 and p. 94, Dhikr Khayber

[19] Abi Bakr al-Ansari al-Qurtubi, Al-Jami' li ahkam al-Qur'an,” (Cairo, 1967), V, 130.

[20] Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Meaning of Qurʼān, 23:1-6

[21] Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Meaning of Qurʼān, 4:12

[22] Sharh al-lum'a, V, 182-83; Jawahir, v, 161; al-Bayan, 229.

[23] Baihaqi,  Al-Sunan Al-Kubra, part 7, 206

[24] Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Volume 2, Book 8, No. 3255

[25] Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Volume 2, Book 8, No. 3263

[26] Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Volume 2, Book 8, No. 3266

[27] Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, Volume 2, Book 8, No. 3251